Food is more than a form of sustenance in Spain, it is literally a way of life. Friendships are formed, families unite, and the working week can be set around every day’s very important meals. The country’s distinctive cuisine brings together unique regional dishes, special ingredients and long standing influences from Moorish and Arab settlers.

Tourists travelling to Spain are often given a useful piece of advice – the Spanish eat late. Don’t expect many restaurants to be open before 9pm, and if you’re eating around this time you won’t be likely to see many Spaniards sharing tables. Book a restaurant table for between 11pm and midnight and you’ll see the place hopping. Dinner is often light after a large lunch and the early evening tradition of tapas.

Breakfast in Spain is a pretty simple and traditionally European affair. The continental meal can include fresh rolls, bread and jam with coffee, hot chocolate or tea. Spanish coffee is served fresh and quite strong, and some tourists find the ubiquitous café con leche (or coffee with milk) is still quite strong for their tastes.

Tapas are probably the concept of Spanish cuisine most admired and imitated around the world, inspiring thousands of bars and restaurants. The idea is simple, straightforward, and a visit to a tapas bar is possibly the best way to sample a wide variety of Spanish food. The word tapa means cover or lid, and the use of the term refers to the days when bar workers would place complimentary appetisers like a cover of their patron’s wine glasses to keep away flies.

Tapas can constitute something as simple as a piece of toasted bread, rubbed with garlic and dipped in olive oil, or a dish of olives. Slices of ham or salami, cheese, pieces of Spanish tortilla and marinated anchovies are popular. Dishes like meatballs in tomato sauce, garlic mushrooms, shrimp or cooked chorizo in wine are all offered to tickle the tastebuds at tapas bars around the country. So is paella, the saffron infused rice dish with meat, seafood and vegetables which is a Spanish institution. Tapas are usually displayed on or in the bar and it’s as easy as pointing to what you want and a tab being run until you’ve had your fill.

Salads are not eaten in Spain as much as they are in other European countries – a salad here is likely to be a rudimentary mix of lettuce and tomato. A lot of vegetables are eaten in cooked dishes and soups – Spanish cuisine makes heavy use of potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, beans and mushrooms.

Garlic is a Spanish favourite and used in almost everything. Olives are also an integral part of Spanish cuisine, whether used in olive oil (of which Spain produces more than any other country) or marinated and eaten as an aperitif or in cooking.

Spanish cooking uses quite a lot of meat, depending on farming and tradition in the region. Chicken, pork and rabbit feature in many dishes and meat products like sausages and salamis are in a class of their own – particularly chorizo, Spain’s spicy best-loved sausage. Prawns and shrimps are extremely popular, and anchovies and sardines are both widely consumed. Squid cooked in its own ink has to be tasted to be believed, and rape (or monkfish) is one of the nation’s favourites. All these can make an appearance in the ubiquitous fish soup which varies from region to region. Gazpacho is another famous Spanish soup, made with tomato, olive oil, garlic, cucumbers and croutons, served chilled.

French cuisine is extremely diverse, with only the Chinese having similar variety in their food. This variety is supported by the French passion for good food in all its forms, France’s extraordinary range of different geographies and climates which support the local production of all types of ingredients, and France’s long and varied history. In many ways, an understanding of the culture of French food and recipesi is an understanding of France itself.

Meals range from the very basic, such as the traditional baguette plus cheese plus inexpensive wine, to very elaborate affairs than can involve a dozen courses and different wines consumed over several hours. Obviously, the latter type of dining is exceptional for most people. However, it is this more sophisticated dining which is typically found in “French restaurants” outside France, giving many foreigners the mistaken impression that French food is heavy and complicated. In fact, much of the French cuisine is fairly simple, relying on high quality fresh ingredients and loving preparation rather than complex recipes.

It is common in much of France to take a two hour break for lunch, with many working parents (particularly in villages and smaller towns) returning home for lunch. In some areas, mainly in the south of France, even longer lunch breaks are taken. Due to the long lunch break, businesses which close for this period typically reopen around 2PM or so and then stay open until about 7PM.

Regional influences on French food

Almost all the famous French dishes are regional specialities, some of which have become popular throughout France (such as Coq au Vin and Foie Gras) while others are mainly enjoyed in the regions in which they originate. Although regional specialities are often offered throughout France, the quality of ingredients and preparation is often superior in their region of origin.

Each region, in addition to boasting local specialities, also has a general style of cooking and choice of ingredients. For example, in Provence the food typically features olive oil, herbs and tomatoes. The evolution of regional cooking styles has been influenced by:

• Local availability. The French, a nation of gourmets, know that the best food is made from local ingredients, which are fresher and of better quality than items which have been transported long distances. Consequently, coastal regions (such as Brittany and Normandy, on the northwest coast of France) will favour sea fish and will use it more often and in more varied ways than inland areas. Likewise, areas where fruit or herbs grow easily, will incorporate these into their local cuisine.
• Neighbouring countries and immigration. Areas of France which border on other countries have incorporated some of the cuisine of their neighbours. It is not surprising to find Italian dishes near the Italian border. More notably, the French region of Alsace is similar to Germany in its food (sauerkraut is popular) and wine, partly due to it currently bordering on Germany and partly due to it having been part of Germany at various points in its history (the border has moved back and forth with various wars). In parts of the south which have a large North African immigrant population one can enjoy the cuisine which they have imported from their original countries.
• History and economic conditions. The culture, lifestyle and economic conditions over a long period of time have formed the development of local food traditions. The rich meat dishes and cream sauces of Burgundy are not only due to Burgundian excellence in raising cattle, but in large part to the economic prosperity of this region over several centuries. On the other hand, mountain regions excel in firm cheeses, which allow food to be preserved over the long and difficult winters, and can be produced from mountain livestock which historically were the main means of support for many families in economically limited areas.

In all parts of France one will find a range of dishes, both in restaurants and in homes, which extends far beyond the regional specialities. However, in much of France the regional influences in terms of ingredients and cooking are marked. The most available food and the best cooking tend to be those produced from local ingredients and using local recipes. Therefore, the decision of where to visit or live in France tends to influence which types of food one will enjoy.

The French Mediterranean uses olive oil, herbs and tomatoes in many of its dishes. The cuisine of northwest France uses butter, soured cream (crème fraiche) and apples. The cuisine of northeast France (Alsace, and to a lesser extent Lorraine) has a strong German influence which includes beer and sauerkraut. Throughout the south in general there tends to be more use of vegetables and fruit (in part due to the favourable climate). Near the Atlantic coast and the Mediterranean there is a greater consumption of sea food, while inland areas favoured by rivers (e.g. the Loire valley) use more fresh water fish.

The Italian connection

Any discussion of the influences on French cuisine would be incomplete with recognising the historical contribution of Italy to the development of French cooking. In 1533, Catherine De Medicis (a Florentine princess) married Henry duc d’Orleans (who became King Henry II or France). At this point, France was not know for its food or food culture. Catherine brought an entourage of Italian chefs with her to France, who introduced to France a variety of dishes, food preparation and dining practices. Although France and Italy obviously have evolved very different food cultures, both before and since this contribution, much of France’s current food culture can be traced back to this time.

Cooking styles

Every region of France has its own distinctive traditions in terms of ingredients and preparation (see France Regions  for further information). On top of this, there are three general approaches which compete with each other:

• Classical French cuisine (also known in France as cuisine bourgeoise). This includes all the classical French dishes which were at one time regional, but are no longer specifically regional. Food is rich and filling, with many dishes using cream-based sauces.

Haute cuisine is classical French cuisine taken to its most sophisticated and extreme. Food is elegant, elaborate and generally rich. Meals tend to be heavy, especially due to the use of cream and either large portions or many smaller portions. There is a strong emphasis on presentation (in particular, vegetables tend to be cut with compulsive precision and uniformity). The finest ingredients are used, and the meal is correspondingly expensive.

• Cuisine Nouvelle. This style developed in the 1970s, as a reaction against the classical school of cooking. The food is simpler and lighter. Portions are smaller and less rich; the heavy cream sauces of the classical approach are particularly avoided. Cooking is less elaborate and quicker, with more emphasis on local and seasonal ingredients.
• Cuisine du terroir. This focuses on regional specialities and is somewhat more rustic in nature. Local produce and food traditions are the main focus.

Each of these three traditions are strongly represented in France, with each having its supporters and specialist restaurants. At the moment, Cuisine Nouvelle is less popular than it was, while Cuisine du terroir has grown in popularity in recent years.

Wine and cheese

Aside from bread and water, the most common accompaniments to a French meal are wine and cheese. Unlike other countries, in France wine is considered a standard part of everyday meals, and is neither expensive nor reserved for special occasions. With everyday meals, ordinary wines are served, although it is expected that the style of wine match the style of food (see French Wine for further information).

In addition to its use in cooking, cheese is often served as a course in itself. In this case, it is served after the main meal but before dessert. This typically consists of a platter with three or four different cheeses, from which guests can slice pieces according to their preferences. Sliced bread (e.g. slices of a baguette) are typically provided at the same time.

Restaurant guides

The most famous and successful restaurant guide in France is the Michelin Guide Rouge, which has approximately 50% market share. It has enormous influence; the award of a single star by the Guide Rouge to a restaurant can add 25% to its turnover and the loss of a star can mean financial ruin for a restaurant.

The Guide Rouge is both a restaurant guide and a hotel guide, although its better known for the former. For the towns in the Guide Rouge there is a list of the main tourist attractions and for the larger towns there is a map. In addition to having one in the house it is handy to have one in the car (e.g. if you are unexpectedly delayed on a journey and need to find a good local restaurant).

Although the Guide Rouge does not provide exact details on the criteria they use for rating restaurants, there are a number of factors beside the quality of food: service, atmosphere and value are some of the other considerations. This perhaps explains our experience that not all restaurants with the same overall rating have the same quality of food, one restaurant may have tremendous atmosphere and average food while another with the same rating may have exceptional food but little atmosphere. The Guide Rouge sometimes makes a few comments under a recommended restaurant; these are worth reading as they give an indication of what aspect of the restaurant impressed the reviewer. The comments sometimes note specialities of the house, which are often the best items on the menu.

Many non-Italians identify Italian cooking with a few of its most popular dishes, like pizza and spaghetti. People often express the opinion that Italian cooking is all pretty much alike. However, those who travel through Italy notice differences in eating habits between cities, even those only a few miles apart.Not only does each region have its own style, but each community and each valley has a different way of cooking as well. Every town has a distinctive way of making sausage, special kinds of cheese and wine, and a local type of bread. If you ask people, even in the same area, how to make pasta sauce, they will all have different answers.

Variations in the omnipresent pasta are another example of the multiplicity of Italian recipes: soft egg noodles in the north, hard-boiled spaghetti in the south, with every conceivable variation in size and shape. Perhaps no other country in the world has a cooking style so finely fragmented into different divisions. So why is Risotto typical of Milan, why did Tortellini originate in Bologna, and why is Pizza so popular in Naples?

This is so for the same reason that Italy has only one unifying Italian language, yet hundreds of different spoken dialects. Italy is a country of great variety, and cooking is just another aspect of

the diversity of Italian culture.

This diversity stems largely from peasant heritage and geographical differences. Italy is a peninsula separated from the rest of the continent by the highest chain of mountains in Europe. In addition, a long spine of mountains runs north to south down through this narrow country. These geographic features create a myriad of environments with noticeable variations: fertile valleys, mountains covered with forests, cool foothills, naked rocks, Mediterranean coastlines, and arid plains. A great variety of different climates have also created innumerable unique geographical and historical areas.

But geographical fragmentation alone will not explain how the same country produced all of these: the rich, fat, baroque food of Bologna, based on butter, parmigiano, and meat; the light, tasty, spicy cooking of Naples, mainly based on olive oil, mozzarella, and seafood; the cuisine of Rome, rich in produce from the surrounding countryside; and the food of Sicily, full of North African influences.

The explanation is hidden in the past; the multitudes of food styles of Italy mainly result from its history. Divided for a long time into many duchies, princedoms, kingdoms, and states—often hostile to one another—political unification in Italy did not occur until 1861. Many populations in the past three thousand years have occupied Italian territory, and most of them contributed their own traditions. And the original people, the Etruscans and Greeks, left influences still felt today.

Local traditions result from long complex historical developments and strongly influence local habits. Distinctive cultural and social differences remain present throughout Italy, although today mass marketing tends to cause a leveling of long-established values. In a country so diverse, it is impossible to define an “Italian” cooking style, but traditional food still is at the core of the cultural identity of each region, and Italians react with attachment to their own identity when they are confronted with the tendency toward flattening their culture.

Yoga is as old as civilisation. Early Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita and the Yoga sutras of Patanjali are universally accepted as constituting the verbal foundation of the Yoga tradition.

Among these, the Yoga Sutras provide the basis and inspiration for most of todays tradition of Yoga. In its recorded history and continuous evolution, Yoga has come to represent not only the ultimate goal, but also the many practices, techniques, methods and ways that to move toward that goal. Thus the literature includes numerous yogic paths. Yoga’s classical definition is derived from the Sanksrit root “Yuj”, meaning:

“to unite, to integrate or to cohere and is thus taken represent the highest state of union, integration or coherence between individual or personal or human consciousness and cosmic or universal or devine consciousness.”

But has the definition of Yoga changed through its evolution? I feel that through the evolution of Yoga, the meaning of Yoga has been consistent through the different paths of Yoga that manifested.

Yoga represents the study, path and the means to proceed and also the absolute aim, which includes the following core concepts: the union of opposites, the effect the outside world has on the body, the yearning for and seeking of form of liberation; the merging of the individual consciousness with the Universal consciousness and the intereset of discovering and attaining one’s true self.

Progress in Yoga depends upon how much effort we are prepared to put into, what our thoughts are on the subject and what our ambitions are. Thus, by necessity Yoga is highly practical. Yoga is not academic and I like that. You can become a Yogi simply reading a book or this website. To progress in Yoga (like life) it takes practice – you need to be prepared to devote time to understanding where you are going; in order to experience anything. Be happy and live life with Detachment. Yoga teaches us that it is not what happens to us, but our response to what happens to us that hurts us. It is our willing permission, our consent to what happens to us, that hurts us far more than what happens to us in the first place. The literature covers this in Verse twelve of book one, where the Yoga Sutras address detachment:

“The restriction of the fluctuations is achieved throught practice and dispassion”.

Here Patanajali teaches that wholeness comes from abhyasa, meaning

“to apply oneself”, and from vairagya, or “supreme detachment”.

Of course, things can hurt us physically or economically and can cause sorrow. But our character, our basic identity does not have to be hurt at all.

As detailed in the Bhagavad Gita, book two, verse forty four, Krishna illustrates defining success on external things is limiting as they are transitory and not ultimately success. Patanjali also points out in Yoga Sutra, book two, verse sixteen, “that which is to be overcome is sorrow yet to come”; ie we can choose to suffer or not to suffer. Courage.

I have learnt through Yoga that my most difficult experiences have become turning points that forge character and develop internal powers, the freedom to handle difficult circumstances in the future and to inspire others to do so as well.The literature covers this in book two, verse seventeen, the Bhagavad Gita states,

“yet, know as indestructible that by which this world is spread out. No one is able to accomplish the destruction of that which is immutable”.

Ie. There is no need to hide under the bed, from life or duty. Move on. There is no need to trap myself in the past or future, I can get through anything.

In summary, Yoga has shown through its long history that it represents the effort that we are going to make in achieving something, the path that will take us to the ultimate achievement and the progress that we are going to make along the way, and ultimately, the end result: the sum of total of our achievements. Experiencing life with awareness, with exposure to great depths of Yogic literature, reinforces my motivation and provides the drive to devote the effort required to follow the Yogic path.

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